Hur språkljuden blir till Mattias Heldner KTH Tal, musik och hörsel heldner@kth.se Experiments from A Practical Introduction to Phonetics by J.C. Catford Basic (or functional) components of speech 1.Initiation 2.Articulation 3.Phonation 1. Producing a prolonged [f]-sound Begin by comfortably filling the lungs that is, take in a deep, but not excessively deep, breath then start up a prolonged [f]-type sound: [f f f f f f]. On one full intake of breath you will no doubt easily be able to keep the sound going for 5 to 10 seconds. Repeat this three or four times breathe in, say prolonged [f!f f f f f], then relax concentrating your attention upon what is happening, upon what you are doing in order to produce that sound.
2. Prolonged [s] 1-2 Conclusions Now carry out the same experiment with a prolonged [s] the first sound in see, the last sound in hiss. Breathe in, start up a prolonged [s]-type sound [s!s!s!s!s!s] lasting for 5 to 10 seconds or so. Repeat several times breathe in, say [s!s!s!s!s!s], relax concentrating your attention all the time upon what you are doing to produce that sound. 1. An activity (lung-deflation in the examples just studied) that initiates a flow of air, and is consequently called initiation (or air-stream mechanism ) the organ(s) used for this purpose being called an initiator (the lungs in this case). 2. An activity that modulates or articulates the airstream, thus generating a specific type of sound. The process itself is called articulation and the organs utilized in articulation are articulators. 3. Removing initiation Now repeat Experiments 1 and 2 saying both [f!f!f!f!f!f] and [s!s!s!s!s!s] again, several times, and consciously introspecting about what the two basic components, initiation and articulation, feel like. Breathe in, and start saying [f f f f f f] as in Exp. 1, only this time, while carefully maintaining the lip teeth articulatory contact, suddenly stop breathing out i.e. abolish the initiatory air-stream. Take care to retain the articulation for at least 5 seconds after you have abolished the initiation. Now repeat the experiment with an [s]-articulation. Breathe in, start up [s s s s s s ] then, while carefully maintaining the [s]-articulation, suddenly abolish the initiation i.e. stop breathing out. Retain the [s]-articulation or another 5 seconds or so after you have abolished the initiation.
Silent articulation 4. Removing articulation A procedure of very great use in the study of phonetics The production of silent sounds, that is, the formation of silent articulation with introspective analysis of the kinaesthetic sensations, is by far the most powerful way of learning about articulation Breathe in and then start up a prolonged [f!f f f f f] but, this time, suddenly abolish the articulation while taking care to keep the initiatory airflow going as long as you can. This will probably be only a very few seconds, because, when the retarding effect of the articulation is removed, the residual initiatory air flows out very rapidly. Do the same with [s s s s s s]. 5. Adding initiation 6. Adding articulation Synthezise a [f]-type sound by starting with the articulation (which, by itself, produces no sound) and then adding initiation (at which time the specific sound of [f] becomes audible). Breathe in, form, and hold, the articulation that is, put the lower lip firmly against the upper teeth then, after silently holding that articulation for a few seconds, start up the initiation, i.e. release the breath and let the initiatory air-stream flow pass the articulation generating the ususal specific hissing sound of [f f f f f f]. Breathe in. Start up the initiation, i.e. begin to exhale, and then, before you have lost too much air, suddenly place the lower lip firmly against the upper teeth: the sound of exhalation is immediately replaced by the specific sound of [f], thus: [h h h f f f f f]. Repeat the same experiment with [s]: [h!h!h s s s s s].
1-6 Conclusions Andning The production of speech-sounds requires the simultaneous presence of two basic components: Initiation, or the production of a flow of air Articulation, or the formation of some kind of obstacle that modulates the airflow to generate a specific type of sound Andning Livsandning (in) Andningens primära funktion är att: Syresätta blodet Avlägsna koldioxid Tal är en sekundär funktion Talandning skiljer sig från livsandning Gasutbyte: syre in, koldioxid ut Regleras med reflex: Medulla oblongata känner av koldioxidhalten i blodet Inandning sker genom att bröstkorgen utvidgas Viktigaste inandningsmusklerna: diafragman, externa interkostalerna
Livsandning (ut) Utandning sker (som regel) passivt Tre passiva krafter samverkar: bröstkorgens elasticitet, Torque en vridkraft vid revbenens infästning mot bröstben, och tyngdkraften Interna interkostalerna kan medverka Man byter ungefär lika mycket luft vid varje andetag Andningsapparaten
Talandning (in) Talandning (ut) Används både till gasutbyte och till fonation Fler muskler kan delta I större grad viljestyrd Tar kortare tid (10 in-90 ut att jämföra med 40 in-60 ut i livsandning) Används till att driva stämläpparnas vibrationer Passiva krafterna inte tillräckliga för att styra utandning för tal utandning skulle gå för fort Inandningsmuskler används för att bromsa hastigheten med vilken bröstkorgen sjunker samman Talandning (ut) Andningsapparaten Magmuskler kan användas för att pressa ut luft ur lungorna Utandningarna kan vara olika långa beroende på vad man vill säga Man använder en större del av sin lungkapacitet
Bröstkorg och lungorna Bröstkorg (thorax): 12 revben, som lyfts och sänks med muskelarbete ökning och minskning av lungvolym andning: inspiration & respiration Muskler i två lager yttre lager: yttre intercostalis musklerna intercostal=mellan revbenen inre lager: inre intercostalis musklerna Mellanrevbensmuskler Under normal inandning yttre intercostalismuskler aktiva Under forcerad inandning inre intercostalismuskler aktiva Under normal utandning inga muskler aktiva Under forcerad utandning bägge muskelgrupperna aktiva Muskulär aktivitet i andning För att öka lungvolymen (inandning) mellangärdet sänks, bukväggarna trycks utåt, bröstkorgen expanderar För att minska lungvolymen (utandning) bukmusklerna aktiva, mellangärdet trängs tillbaka
Lungsystemet (Pulmoniska systemet) Trachea (luftstrupen) och lungorna Lungorna: två elastiska säckar Trachea har " - en huvudförgrening (h/v): bronchus " - vidare förgreningar: bronchioler som " - slutar i alveolerna (lungblåsor) Lungsystemet Lungsystemet Pleura (lungsäck) en på var sida fäster vid bröstkorgen vätskefylld håller lungorna på plats och skyddar gör andning i olika kroppslägen möjlig Några volymmått Totalvolym, från lungorna till läpparna varierar mycket mellan olika talare Absolut maximum: 6.5 liter för en stor person vid max inandning Absolut minimum: 1.5 liter restvolym i lungorna vid maximal forcerad utandning Skillnaden mellan totalvolymen och restvolymen kallas vitalkapaciteten. Bronker Alveoler
Andning under tal och sång Andning under tal och sång Subglottalt tryck (dvs övertryck) vid normalt tal varierar mellan 0 och 10 cm H2O. Man kan lätt bilda sig en uppfattning om hur mycket det är genom att sänka ner ett sugrör 10 cm i ett vattenglas och blåsa tills det precis börjar bubbla. Då är trycket i munhålan 10 cm över normalt atmosfärsstryck. Det subglottala trycket i tal varierar mellan 0 och 10 cm H2O vid tal För att hålla stämläpparnas svängning igång krävs ett supraglottalt (över)tryck som överstiger 2 cm H2O Andning under tal och sång Maximalt respiratoriskt tryck från lungorna mellan 130 och 180 cm H2O I talapparaten mellan 100 och 160 cm H2O För att få en föreställning på vad detta innebär kan man jämföra med vad som krävs för att åstadkomma en stark ton på ett rörbladsinstrument (65 cm H2O). Maximalt tryck har uppmätts för bl.a. trumpetare. Artikulation
Fricatives Both [f] and [s] involve turbulent airflow through a narrow channel, resulting in a hissing noise This type of articulation is called fricative [f] and [s] are both fricatives, but they are articulated at different places Articulation Articulations can be described and classified in terms of their manner of articulation (e.g. fricative), and their place of articulation within the vocal tract Plosives (stops) Plosives involve momentary complete closure (blockage of the air-stream) The consequence being that pressure builds up behind the closure When the closure is removed, the compressed air bursts out in a small explosion Plosives... This type of articulation is know as plosive (or stop), and examples are the sounds of [p], [t], [k] Examples: par, tar, kar, lopp, lott, lock
7. Nature of stops 7. Nature of stops... First, silently make and release the stops [p], [t], [k] several times, and then proceed to the following experiment. Breathe in, and then start up the initiation; that is begin to exhale through the open mouth. Very soon after the exhalation has started, and while trying to keep the exhaled air-stream going, close the lips and suddenly open them again after a very brief period of closure, and continue to exhale until the air in your lungs is exhausted. Throughout this operation you must strive to keep the initiating air-stream going all the time. Think of it as a continuous stream of initiatory air, with a stop articulation [p] momentarily superimposed on it. If this is done properly, the effect should be a slight pressure buildup behind the closed lips, so that when they are suddenly opened again a moment later there is an explosive release of the highpressure air that had been pent up behind the stop. 7. Nature of stops... We can represent the process as [h h h p H h h], where the capital H represents the momentary explosive release of air. Carry out the same experiment with the stops [t], and [k]. [h h h t H h h] [h h h k H h h] Initiation: a bellows-like, or piston-like, movement of an organ, that generates positive or negative air-pressure adjacent to it in the vocal tract and thus initiates an egressive (outgoing) or ingressive (ingoing) flow of air. Articulation: an organic posture or movement most commonly in the mouth that modulates the initiatory airflow in such a way as to generate a sound of some specific type.
22. Phonation Fonation Start by going back to the very first experiment fill the lungs and then produce a prolonged [f f f f f...] sound. As we know, this sound has two components pulmonic pressure initiation, and an [f]-type articulation. Now, instead of [f f f f f...], make a prolonged [v v v v v...]. That is a prolonged version of the initial sound of Vera or vine. Breathe in, and start it up, taking care to make a very vigorous and loud prolonged [v], thus: [v v v v v...]. As you introspect about this you should observe that (i) the articulation of [v] is exactly the same as that of [f] lower lip against upper teeth, and (ii) the initiation of [v] is exactly the same as that of [f] pulmonic pressure. But there is an obvious difference in sound: the prolonged [f] is simply a long drawn out hissing sound; but the prolonged [v] is a long drawn out buzzing sound. If you listen carefully, you may observe that in [v] the hiss of [f] is still there, virtually unchanged, but that a buzz is added to it. Carry out the same experiment with [s] and then with a prolonged, strong buzzing [z] as in zero: [s s s s s...] [z z z z z...]. Once again, as you introspect about what you are doing you will observe that the initiation and the articulation of [z] are exactly the same as those of [s]. The only difference is that in [z] something is added that is not present in [s] namely that same buzzing sound that was present in [v] but absent in [f].
To get a more dramatic impression of the difference between these pairs of sounds, put your hands tightly over your ears so that you cannot hear the sounds in the normal way, by air-conduction, but only inside your head by bone-conduction. Now, with the ears shut in this way first say f f f f f] and [s s s s s], then [v v v v v] and [z z z z z]. You cannot fail to notice the strong buzzing sound that is added to [v] and [z], but absent in [f] and [s]. 23. Phonation Now alternate [f f f v v v f f f v v v f f f...] and [s s z z s s z z...], that is, maintain the [f]- or [s]-type articulation firmly in place throughout, and keep the pulmonic pressure initiation going steadily throughout, but switch on voice, then switch it off again, on again... and so on. In doing this, vigorously, but deliberately and introspectively, you will get the feeling that phonation (voice and voicelessness) constitutes a third, independently controllable component of sound production. It is essential to acquire precise conscious control of this component the ability to add or subtract voice to or from virtually any sound. Struphuvudet (Larynx) Fonation och larynx Primär funktion: - skydda andningsapparaten från främmande objekt (t ex mat) - ventil som reglerar luftflöde Sekundär funktion: - röstkälla i fonerat tal - olika inställningar leder till olika fonationstyper
Larynx brosk Thyroid/Sköldbrosket Skyddande funktion, fäste för vocalismuskeln och andra styrande muskler Arytenoid/Kannbrosken Fäste för stämläpparna och andra styrande muskler Cricoid/Ringbrosket Muskelfäste Epiglottis/Struplocket Skyddande så att mat går rätta vägen Larynx brosk Larynx muskler Larynx brosk PCA Posterior cricoarytenoid (ringbr-kannbr.) - abduktion, dvs att sära kannbrosken (glottal öppning, t.ex. vid inandning) LCA Lateral cricoarytenoid - adduktion, dvs att föra ihop kannbrosken IA Transverse och oblique arytenoid kallas tillsammas för Interarytenoid Transverse arytenoid - för ihop kannbrosken Oblique arytenoid - för ihop kannbrosken
Larynx muskler CT Cricothyroid (mellan ring och sköldbrosk) - struphuvuds spännmuskel - primärmuskel för längden av " stämläpparna Larynx rörelser Thyroarytenoid (mell. kann- och sköldbrosk) - vocalis muskel - drar ihop stämläpparna, förkortning Cricothyroid reglerar tonhöjden Abduktion och adduktion
Stämläpparna Stämläpparna Stämläpparna Stämläpparnas deformering under en glottisvåg Schematisk framställning av höljets och ligamentets rörelse under glottisvågen Successiva former på den ena stämläppen under den deformering den genomgår under glottisvågen